American Indian Religions::

More Generalisations

Let's look at some of the other spiritual elements shared by some, but not all, Eastern Subarctic, Eastern Woodlands, Plains and Southwest Indian cultures:

• Deity: A common concept is that of a dual divinity - 1. a Creator who is responsible for the creation of the world and is recognized in religious ritual and prayers; 2. a mythical individual, a hero or trickster, who teaches culture, proper behaviour and provides sustenance to the tribe. There are also spirits which control the weather, spirits which interact with humans, and others who inhabit the underworld. Simultaneously the Creator and the spirits may be perceived as a single spiritual force, as in the unity called Wakantanka by the Sioux - which I shall talk about soon, the Iroquois' Orenda and the Ojibwa's Manitou.
• Creation: Individual tribes have differing stories of Creation. One set of themes found in some tribes describes that in the beginning, the world was populated by many people. Most were subsequently transformed into animals. Indians thus feel a close bond with animals because of their shared human ancestry. This bond is reflected in the frequent rituals in which animal behaviour is simulated. Each species has its 'keeper' or 'leader'; for example, the deer have a keeper or leader deer who is larger and more important than all the others.
• Emergence of the Tribe: In the Southwest, for example, the universe is believed to consist of many dark, underground layers through which the humans had to climb. They emerged into the present world through a small hole in the ground - the world's navel. Most tribes believe that their ancestors have been present in North America as far back as there were humans.
• Sacred Texts: Most tribes have preserved their spiritual beliefs as an oral tradition - what may be called oral texts.
• Afterlife: There is a variety of beliefs regarding the afterlife. Some believe in reincarnation, with a person being reborn either as a human or animal after death. Others believe that humans return as ghosts, or that people go to an other world. Others believe that nothing definitely can be known about one's fate after this life. Combinations of belief are common.
• Cosmology: Again, many tribes have unique concepts of the world and its place in the universe. One theme found in some tribes understands the universe as being composed of multiple layers. The natural world, or earth is the middle level, generally. These layers are thought to be linked by the World Tree, which has its roots in the underground, has a trunk passing through the natural world, and has its top in the sky world.
• Shamans: Although the term "shaman" has its origins in Siberia, it is often used by anthropologists to refer to all aboriginal healers. Spirits may be encouraged to occupy the shaman's body during public lodge ceremonies. Drum beating and chanting aid this process. The spirits are then asked to depart and perform the needed acts. Other times, shamans enter into a trance and traverse the underworld or go great distances in this world to seek lost possessions or healing.
• Vision Quest: Young boys before or at puberty are encouraged to enter into a period of fasting, meditation and physical challenge. Girls are not usually eligible for a quest - usually because their monthly menstruation is considered an important ritual cleansing in itself. The boy separates himself from the tribe and goes to a wilderness area. The goal is to receive a vision that will guide his development for the rest of his life. The boy will also seek to acquire a guardian spirit who will be close and supportive for his lifetime. Adults, again mainly, though not exclusively, male, continue to seek visions from one to four days and nights usually.
• Renewal Celebrations: Amongst the Plains cultures, the Sun Dance is perceived as a replay of the original creation. It fulfils many religious purposes: to give thanks to the Creator, to pray for the renewal of the people and earth, to promote health, etc. It also gives an opportunity for people to socialise and renew friendships with other groups. A sweat lodge purifies the participants and readies them for lengthy fasting and dancing. The US and Canadian governments sought to suppress the Sun Dance, but the ritual merely went underground where it continued to thrive in secret. Its performance today has become more open and more popular.
• Sweat Lodge: This is structure which generates hot moist air, similar to a Finnish sauna. It is used primarily for rituals of purification, for spiritual renewal and of healing. A sweat lodge may be a small structure made of a frame of saplings, covered with skins, canvas or blanket. A depression is dug in the center into which hot rocks are positioned. Water is thrown on the rocks to create steam. A small flap opening is used to regulate the temperature. As many as twenty people can be accommodated in some lodges.
• Hunting ceremonies: These involve the ritual treatment of a bear, buffalo, deer or other animal after its killing during a successful hunt. The goal is to appease the dead animal's spirit and convince their kin to offer themselves up to the hunters in future.
• Prophets: The religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam trace their development through a series of patriarchs and prophets. Native Americans religions tend not to have corresponding ancient revered persons in their background. However, some do, such as the Lakota Sioux to whom a spiritual White Buffalo Calf Woman appeared many generations ago and gave them their sacred pipe and a host of spiritual and philosophical beliefs and values. There have been a few recent prophets too - the most famous being Handsome Lake of the Iroquois Confederacy. However, they appeared after the European invasion.